Translation, and the Manipulation of Difference: Arabic Literature in Nineteenth Century England by Tarek Shamma
Prepared by the researche : Tarik ElFalih – Abdelmalek Essaadi University – Faculty of letters and Human Sciences Tetouane, Morocco
Democratic Arabic Center
Journal of cultural linguistic and artistic studies : Thirty-fourth Issue – December 2024
A Periodical International Journal published by the “Democratic Arab Center” Germany – Berlin
Journal of cultural linguistic and artistic studies
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Abstract
Tarek Shamma’s Translation and the Manipulation of Difference: Arabic Literature in Nineteenth Century England investigates ideological and cultural forces that shape translation, notably in Arabic literature. Shamma begins with the long-standing dispute between free and literal translation, showing how translation philosophies treat linguistic and cultural differences differently. He agrees with Lawrence Venuti that free translation often serves ideological aims and criticises Western academia’s marginalisation of literal translation. Shamma contrasts Eugene Nida’s focus on establishing a “natural equivalent” in the target language with the cultural turn in translation studies, which makes translation politically fraught. Shamma explores Edward William Lane’s English translation of The Arabian Nights to examine translation’s colonial effects. He contrasts Lane’s literalist approach with Antoine Galland’s domesticated and exoticized French interpretation, showing how Galland adapted the tales to European literary preferences and colonial discourse. Galland’s translation distorted, omitted, and fabricated narratives, encouraging curiosity with the Orient and imperialist prejudices. These activities demonstrate how translation shapes cultural identities and geopolitical structures, according to Shamma. He shows how translation is a zone of power by analysing colonial translation movements from exoticisation to literalism. Translation negotiates and produces ideologically constructed identities, he argues, by moulding perceptions of the “Other” and contributing to colonial rhetoric. Translators mediate culture and participate in colonial power dynamics, as this study shows.
Tarek Shamma starts his book, Translation, and the Manipulation of Difference: Arabic Literature in Nineteenth Century England, with an introduction that discusses the issue of free translation versus literal one throughout history. He sheds light on the fact that translators and translation theorists have been arguing about the issues related to the field and each comes up with different terms. He argued that ‘positions on the degree of permissible linguistic and stylistic deviation from the source text have given rise to full-fledged translation theories. Regardless of the specific terminology employed − faithful/free, word-for-word/sense-for-sense, rank-bound/rank-unbound, overt/covert –the fundamental question remains the same: how should the translator handle the difference of the source text? Should it be emphasized or mitigated? Should the translation draw attention to itself or try to remain invisible?’ Then, he moves on to argue throughout the introduction about the marginalization of literal translation within the Western Academia. The later favours the free translation that serves many ideological tendencies of translators as he stated that one can safely accept Lawrence Venuti’s view that literal translation has been generally marginalized in modern translation studies in the West. The writer also highlights in the introduction the view of Eugen Nida about translation who claimed that the aim behind translation “consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida and Taber 1969: 12)’ Nida attempted to emphasize that as translator of any text , one is supposed to look for the closest and natural equivalent in the target language focusing both on meaning in the first place and later on the form .Then , he argues that with the arrival of cultural turn in the field of translation studies, many views were reconsidered based on the fact that the act of translation is a political act par excellence . He stated how Venuti looks at translation as a “cultural political practice” (1995: 19/2008: 33). It is not only a reflection of a different culture but is engaged in the literary and ideological conflicts of the target culture itself. Thus (1996: 196-7): The effects of translation are felt home as well as abroad. On the one hand, translation wields enormous power in the construction of national identities of foreign cultures and hence can play a role in racial and ethnic conflicts and geopolitical confrontations. On the other hand, translation enlists the foreign text in the maintenance or revision of literary canons in the target-language culture […] All these social conditions permit translation to be called a cultural, political practice, constructing or critiquing ideology-stamped identities for foreign cultures, affirming or transgressing institutional limits in the target-language culture. Thus, translation act is no more considered as innocent, but as ideologically framed act within the discursive practices that frame the discipline. Translation is a space of power relations between the source text and the target text, on one hand, the translator stands as an agent to that discourse of power that determines the relation between the two and as a voice of resistance to the dominant source text while using the techniques of translation such as foreignization domestication etc on the other.
Later in the introduction, the writer investigates the problem of translation strategies and the ways it manipulates in the target language and could be therefore as an antidote to ethnocentrism and cultural insularity. The writer will use case studies from various translation projects to test Venute’s and other assumptions and reveal their limits.
Chapter one: 1. Colonial Representation and the Uses of Literalism Edward William Lane’s Translation of The Arabian Nights
The writer sheds light on the two translations that shape the Western mind of The Arabian Nights and stand as a defining turning points, the French of Galland and the English of Lane. He will highlight on the way it was produced and translated by the French writer Antoinette Galland. The latter translation of the Arabian Nights spread like a fire through Europe and France as stated ‘By all accounts, the work was an outstanding and immediate success. It “spread like wildfire all over Europe” (Rosenthal 1974: 346), and pirated editions appeared almost immediately in The Hague (Macdonald 1930: 414). The first two volumes, published in 1704, were reissued the next year, and the book went through numerous reprints, including pirated editions (Macdonald 1932: 388).’’ After this success of the tales, the demand for more tales from Oriental zone will rise and more stories and studies will be held through. The author also claimed that the literary genre of the tales has influenced many authors in such as the case “in England, France, and other European countries throughout the eighteenth and part of the nineteenth centuries, and was employed by figures as diverse as Joseph Addison, François-Marie Voltaire, Benjamin Disraeli, Oliver Goldsmith, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Lord Byron, Charles Montesquieu, William Beckford, and Dr. Johnson.”. The translation of the tales spread as fashion to England.” Les mille et une nuits was translated into English shortly after its appearance in French.”. Tariq Shama will try to investigate the reasons for this interest in the translation of the Arabian Nights by the English and French. On one hand, the tales in the Arabians Nights appeared to be different and a literary style of narrative full of emotions and spontaneity. Thus, it was seen as an escape from the classicist traditional narratives that was dominating the space in Europe. Also, this tendency of adapting the Arabian Nights style and techniques will be another factor that led to the rise of Romanticism in Europe. On the other hand , Europe relationships with East and Muslem countries in terms of politics , culture, military and trade also participate in this huge interest in the Arabian Nights reading and translations as stated here “ On the other hand, in the larger historical context of Europe’s relationship with the East, and specifically Muslim countries, military and political developments in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries made possible an appreciation of these cultures in entirely fresh ways.”
Galland and his Readers:
In this part of the book, the author highlights the translation of Galland, the techniques used and the way he domesticated the source text to appeal to the readership in France. He changed names of characters and used spoken French language for addressing the king such as His majesty that is the source doesn’t include. Shamma said “The hallmark of Galland’s style was to domesticate the tales into the acceptable literary modes of the time, while consciously preserving, or even enhancing, their exotic flavour. Thus, in the “frenchified dialogue” (Gerhardt 1963: 20) of the Nuits, characters address each other as “madame”, “monsieur”, and “seigneur”; “courtisans” address their king as “votre Majeste” [Your Majesty]. People use “sequins” instead of dinars and are transported in “equipages”; and houses are equipped with porches. When he added descriptions such as “un […] jardin […] consacré aux fètes et aux divertissements de la cour” [garden dedicated to fetes and diversions of the court] (1840 I: 3), or “sa maison était le rendezvous de toute la noblesse de la cour” [his house was a rendezvous place for all the nobles of the court] (1840 II: 44), it was obviously the French court of the eighteenth century that Galland had in mind.”. This sort of adaption that the translator opted for was done with the purpose to trigger the readers into the world of Oriental culture and market driven force as well. Therefore, on one hand, the translator attempted to break the mode of narrativity that is dominating in the literary circles in his country, and on the other hand, he tried to invite his readers for a journey in the Orient. The latter is characterized by exoticism, fascination and wonders. Furthermore, Galland’s translation served the politics of othering the other. His translation was stereotyping the Orient by mocking and comparing the way characters were reacting to each other. The author stated “Galland was careful to gloss over any customs that might have struck his readers as radically alien. As Mia Gerhardt observes, Galland was translating for an audience that “mocked at any word or gesture that departed from its own polite custom; it resented the bizarre” (1963: 19). Hence, in the story of “Noureddin and the Beautiful Persian” (1840 II: 134-181), Galland omitted a reference to circumcision; indeed, mention of this practice was suppressed in the entire translation. Also, in the context of the “Story of Ali Ebn Becar”, the Arabic text talks about Haroun Alraschid’s “concubines”; Galland has “dames ses favorites” [favourite ladies] (1840 II: 44). These changes resulted in “a certain vague generality in the description of manners, conduct and things of everyday life” (Gerhardt 1963: 73).” This sort of mockery that the translator used shows his agenda which serves the colonial discourse about the Orient by magnifying points of differences between the two worlds. The translator in this sense seems to deviate from the source text and to rewrite his own with no consideration to the ethical issues related to the field of translation. The translator also provides explanations for his readers about certain events in the stories so as not to distort their tastes “ Thus, when Schahzenan discovers his wife in bed with “an officer of the guard”, and proceeds to kill her, Galland provides him with a lengthy monologue in which he explains that, as king, he has to punish wickedness within his dominion, and that he has a “just resentment” as a husband, and so on (Galland 1995: 2).” Th author added that the translation of Galland also distorted the original version by addition on the one hand , and omission of many passages and poetical lines on the other .These acts from the translator were haring the original and text , but still the translator moves on to create his own reading and fabrications to meet the requirement of his time , ideologically and literally such as the case here “ While it was necessary for Galland to acclimate the Arabic tales to the literary and social parameters of his time, it was equally important to stress their exotic character − for therein lay one of their primary attractions. Hence, Galland enveloped the tales in an ambiance of mystery, magic, opulence, and glamour − creating a world of kings and princesses, glorious palaces, intense passions, infatuated lovers, genies, and supernatural adventures. To be sure, the original work (in some ways an escapist popular fantasy about the magnificent life of the rich and powerful) did provide some grounds for this treatment. But there is no doubt that, as Hawari says (1980: 158),
So much of the glamour of the Nights is […] the work of Galland, and it follows that, as a translation, his work is crammed with material that is, strictly speaking, alien to the Arabic original in that it comes from another world, that of Galland’s learning.
This passage shows the translator and an agent to the colonial discourse that was mean to circulate among people at that time. His was of depicting and highlighting the exotic side of the Orient and creating mindscape that is so intense with the previous representations. Thus, this method followed by translators at that time was a clean announcement of the colonial discourse project that will be resulted in colonialism later on “the transition from Galland’s imaginative exoticism to the literalist praxes of Burton and Lane was reflective of − indeed, caused by − the rise of European (and especially English) colonialism in the Middle East, beginning with the second half of the eighteenth century. Norman Daniel sees this emphasis on difference as integral to the growth of imperialism (1966: 61):
European literature began to make much of every difference between the two civilizations and veiled their basic resemblance. It is important that this was the background of the imperial movements which are the subjects of this book. It was from this literature that the young men appointed to posts in provinces of empire, in State, and Church, and commerce, had formed their first ideas of the Muslim world.”
Galland Reconsidered
In this sub-chapter, the author will enlighten readers to the development in attitudes from Galland translation of Arabian Nights to the nineteenth century. The write draws a comparison between French and British perceptions about the orient in the translation of the Arabian Nights. For the writer, the English representation about the Orient is a bit realistic, he stated “For it was, in fact, colonial projects that created the need which Conant observed in England for more realistic representations of the East. In particular reference to the Arabian Nights, “with the growth of British mercantile interests in India and Egypt, the emphasis on information became a recurrent theme in writings about the Nights […] the tales were seen as more impressive, and ultimately, more useful than travel accounts” (Musawi 1981: 27).” The write thinks that the translations were to be considered as means of colonialism and a way of representing realities in the Orient. Thus, the seek for collecting data and information about the Orient was to be done through the translations and anthropological research. Later on, with the movements of travellers and a call for the reconsideration of tales from the Arabian Nights was hugely discussed among the public, so the blame was to be held on the French translation that the English version is derived from.
The writer moves on throughout the first chapter to discuss and shed light on the competition between France and Britain on the areas to colonize. Also, he discussed their interests of French and British in their colonies. The writer exemplified this by the French English conflictual history over Egypt, he stated “The French occupation was short-lived. It came to an end in 1801 when the last French troops remaining in Egypt capitulated to the joint invasion by the British, British Indian, and Ottoman forces. But the impact on the strategic significance of Egypt (not to mention its effects on the country itself) was immeasurable. As Leila Ahmed says: “Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt […] dramatically focused attention on the country” (1978: 4). Egypt became a centrepiece of British foreign policy, as the virtual cessation of Ottoman influence in Egypt opened the country for European interference.” Then, the writer investigates the interest of Edward William Lane in Egypt, his project of research and interests for the ska of colonial discourse “Sometimes Lane removed details that he believed were not consistent with the society or history which the Arabian Nights was supposed to reflect. For example, when he found that the description in his standard copy of the king of the frame tale as hailing from the Persian dynasty of S.s.n was incompatible with actual history, he simply ignored it: “I have here omitted, in my translation, what would render the whole work full of anachronisms” (1840 I: 22). Yet the vast majority of the omissions and abridgements took place in the latter volumes, especially the final, third one. These stories held no interest because whatever illustrative material they contained had already been discussed in Lane’s notes on the previous stories; the bulk of his exposition of Egyptian society had by then been almost exhausted.” The writer shows that Lane has participated in the construction of modes of representation that the colonial discourse intended to inculcate in the mindscape of the Westerners about the Orient and Egypt in particular.
Chapter two: The Exotic Dimension of Foreignizing Strategies Richard Francis Burton’s Translation of The Arabian Nights
The second chapter starts with the investigation of Richard Francis Burton work and project about the Orient. He was considered one of the prominent translators from Arabic into English in the nineteenth century “Hi translations include the now classical The Book of The Thousand Nights and a Night, The Perfumed Garden of the Cheikh Nefzaoui and the Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana. Burton was also a traveller, a linguist, an “anthropologist”, and an adventurer whose exotic exploits in Arabia, Africa, and South America fired the imagination of many of his contemporaries.” For the writer , Burton’s work forms a way to shock and shaken the perceptions of the British about the Orient on one hand , and to help them to understand those cultural differences of those inhabitants of their colonies on the other hand “Burton saw his works about the customs and beliefs of other cultures as a means of shocking his English readers out of their complacency and narrow- mindedness, and he professedly intended some of them (especially his translations from Eastern languages) to enlighten and educate the Victorians on issues that, in their “immodest modesty”, they were reticent and consequently ignorant about. At the same time, however, he emphasized the utility of his translations and representations to a better understanding by the British colonizers of the peoples they ruled.” Thus, the image of the Orient is subversive in his projects and work according to the writer. His attempt to make British understand their colonies was not done for the sake of coexistence and accepting their differences, but to control and subvert them. Therefore, one may consider Burton’s work as siding with the colonial policy to dominate and control the Orient for colonial reasons economically, politically and ideologically. After that, the writer talks abouts Burton and his activities as an official in the Orient. His controversial character that he was seen in his performance as being rebellious to the Victorian era and traditions. It is said that he was too open and hardly apply the conservative rules characterized the British Victorian society. This sort of character will lead the authorities in Britain to reconsider his service in the Orient and appoint him in Austria as kind of punishment to his rebellious behaviour. Furthermore, the writer highlights the experience of Burton in Meka Pilgrimage and his description of that; he stated “ The most significant event of Burton’s career before his translation of the Arabian Nights was his “pilgrimage”. In 1853, having obtained the financial support of the Royal Geographical Society and a one-year furlough from his military duties to “pursue my Arabic studies in lands where the language is best learned” (1855-56/1964 I: 1), Burton embarked on what was to become his most celebrated achievement and a defining moment of his career, the “pilgrimage” to Mecca and Medina. Burton’s original project was to remove “that opprobrium of modern adventure, the huge white blot which in our maps still notes the Eastern and Central regions of Arabia [i.e. “the Empty Quarter”]” (ibid.). But when the three years’ leave, he asked for (necessary for “the task of spanning the deserts”) was denied, he was content with adventure for its own sake.” Here Burton’s attempt was to focus on Arabic language and culture by being exposed to it in the Arabic land, his justification of the reasons behind his interest in the Orient culture and language is to be his fascination and like for that. He thinks that the objective representation and description of the Orient is to be from the inside, being exposed to that environment and live among the natives, though his justification is to be seen through and orientalist doing anthropological surveys for the purpose of colonialism basically. Later, Tariq Shamma talks about literality and postcolonialism, he mentions the fact that any translator is an invader to some extent, he tries his best to foreignize the translated text and keeps its cultural and discursive practice. He said that “Translations that preserve, and emphasize, the alterity of the foreign text has been a constant theme in some modern reflections on translation, especially those with political orientation. It has almost become the standard argument that the task of the translator is to expose his/her own culture to the “experience of the foreign”, that is to register those cultural and linguistic aspects of the source text that do not conform to the values of the target community.” Thus, the translator stands as mediator or bridge between the two worlds, the one of the source texts and of the target language text. After that, the writer moves to talk about the privilege of word for word translations over other strategies and techniques. He also investigates the concept of difference by Derida, he thinks that the power relations that the translator is being involved in the S and T texts should be dealt with a total application of Jacques Derida’s notion of difference, for avoiding the alienation of either the source or the target text in the process of translation. he said that “the exhibitionary effect that literal translation assumes in situations of radical power disparity is far from encouraging respect for the difference of foreign cultures. For the power to put on display, to dissect and analyse to the smallest detail, is the symbol − indeed, the actual realization − of the power to control and subjugate.” Therefore, this dualistic view is mainly for serving the colonial discourse over the colonized nations.
Chapter three: Domestication as Resistance Wilfrid Scawen Blunt’s Translations from Arabic
In this chapter, the writer tries to shed light on the technique of domestication used in the work of Blunt’s translation. He said that Blunt’s was siding with the colonized voices and was counter-attacking the colonial discourse and its violation of the way they represented the native communities. He said that “Wilfrid Scawen Blunt (1840- 1922) is an example of a translator who chose to violate the parameters which filter the works of a particular foreign culture, along with the socio-political power structures that generate them.” This position that Blunt took was considered as voice of resisting the colonial power. Thus, the work of Blunt is to be considered as ging the voice to voiceless from the colonized position. Blunt was fascinated by the Bedouins culture and political organization that characterized them. He said that he was trying to live among them and study their structure closely and from an objective point of view. It said that Blunt was enjoying the diversity, and he hated the empires and domination. This was the reason why he didn’t side with the colonial power, and he preferred to give the voice to the communities under colonialism in his work. This view appears clearly in this quote” He hated big empires as being modern and vulgar; to him the world was a better place when divided up into smaller states, with jolly little wars from time to time which involved no great extent of victory or defeat.’’ After that, Shamma talks about Blunt’s childhood and the events that impacted his life and among them the death of his mother. Blunt was also impressed by the Lord Byron, and he was acquainted with his work. Then, the writer of the book talks about Blunt’s encounter with Muslim east in Constantinople, it is said that it was very positive and well understood. His involvement in the political life said to be “Blunt maintained that “it was only by accident that [his] mind was gradually turned to politics” (1907/1980:4). His political activity was a lifelong battle against British imperialism, and it was in the Muslim and Arab world where his career started, and where he focused his energies for most of his life. In 1873, finding himself “in indifferent health, and to escape a late spring in England”, he embarked with his wife on their “first common journey in Eastern lands”. Thus, one may notice from this quote that Blunt was said siding with the colonized and the voiceless and he contributed to vice the resisting counter-discourse in his work. The author shows Blunt and his interaction among the Bedouins, his being involved in their daily routines to the extent that one of the Bedouins asked his help to convince one of the girl’s father for approving his marriage with his daughter. This close and strong relationship that Blunt had established with the natives made him feel their sufferance from the colonial domination. After that, the writer goes on narrating Blunt experiences in the Arab world and his attempt to save native from execution on one hand, and his denouncement of British colonialism to Muslem world on the other hand. He also tried to convince the English readers about the positive image of Islam and the natives in the Arabia. Shamma also sheds light on Blunt’s translation of some works in the book by providing examples of his Arabic and English equivalents. Later in the conclusion, Tariq Shamma concluded his book with emphasis that “the translation of Arabic literature in nineteenth-century England could not be separated from the political and historical environment of representation, which over a long period had centred on polarized images and was further complicated by growing British and European colonial intervention in the Middle East.” This strategy that the colonizer followed in his domination made translators and their work under investigation by many scholars.
Reference:
Shamma, T. (2009). Translation and the Manipulation of Difference: Arabic Literature in Nineteenth Century England. London: Routledge
